by Eric Yarnell, ND, RH(AHG)
Last updated 17 May 2023
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Table of Contents
Clinical Highlights
Thuja spp are broad spectrum antimicrobials that are considered heating and stimulating.
Thuja spp are very safe at reasonable doses.
Thuja spp steam distilled volatile oils are highly-concentrated antimicrobials that could, in overdose, be quite toxic and are contraindicated in pregnancy.
Thuja plicata (red cedar) is arguably the most important and revered plant in native Pacific Northwest coastal cultures, for medicinal and other purposes, and should continue to be an important medicine in this bioregion. Similarly, Thuja occidentalis (arborvitae) is arguably the most important and reverse plant in native Atlantic Northeast cultures, for medicinal and other purposes. It is considered the southern direction of the medicine wheel (Herron 2002).
Thuja spp are very safe at reasonable doses.
Thuja spp steam distilled volatile oils are highly-concentrated antimicrobials that could, in overdose, be quite toxic and are contraindicated in pregnancy.
Thuja plicata (red cedar) is arguably the most important and revered plant in native Pacific Northwest coastal cultures, for medicinal and other purposes, and should continue to be an important medicine in this bioregion. Similarly, Thuja occidentalis (arborvitae) is arguably the most important and reverse plant in native Atlantic Northeast cultures, for medicinal and other purposes. It is considered the southern direction of the medicine wheel (Herron 2002).
Clinical Fundamentals
Part Used: fresh or dried leaf (bark and root bark are used for non-medicinal purposes)
Taste: aromatic, mildly astringent, slightly waxy, and tough
Major Actions:
Major Organ System Affinities
Major Indications:
Major Constituents:
Adverse Effects: General none are encountered at therapeutic doses.
Though thujone has been found to be carcinogenic in isolation, tinctures of T. occidentalis containing thujone showed no such activity in vitro (Valsa and Felzenszwalb 2001).
Red cedar pollen is allergenic and can cause occupational or general asthma, though reactions to it appear to be quite rare. There are also a handful of isolated reports of contact allergy to red cedar wood.
Contraindications: Chronic internal use of the volatile oil is not recommended. Internal use in pregnancy, especially of the volatile oil, is strongly discouraged.
Drug Interactions: None are known or anticipated. Thuja spp should work synergistically with antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, and antiviral drugs
Taste: aromatic, mildly astringent, slightly waxy, and tough
Major Actions:
- Antimicrobial
- Immunostimulant
Major Organ System Affinities
- Respiratory tract
- Immune system
Major Indications:
- Upper and lower respiratory infections
- Gastrointestinal infections
- Urinary tract infections
- Skin infections (topical)
- Warts (topical)
Major Constituents:
- Terpenoids
- Lignans
Adverse Effects: General none are encountered at therapeutic doses.
Though thujone has been found to be carcinogenic in isolation, tinctures of T. occidentalis containing thujone showed no such activity in vitro (Valsa and Felzenszwalb 2001).
Red cedar pollen is allergenic and can cause occupational or general asthma, though reactions to it appear to be quite rare. There are also a handful of isolated reports of contact allergy to red cedar wood.
Contraindications: Chronic internal use of the volatile oil is not recommended. Internal use in pregnancy, especially of the volatile oil, is strongly discouraged.
Drug Interactions: None are known or anticipated. Thuja spp should work synergistically with antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, and antiviral drugs
Pharmacy Essentials
Tincture: 1:2–1:3 weight to volume ratio, 50–60% ethanol
Dose:
Acute, adult: 1–2 ml q2–3h
Chronic, adult: 0.5–1 ml tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Glycerite: not recommended (contains mostly fat-soluble constituents)
Decoction: 5 g (2–3 heaping tsp) of leaves, simmered, covered, in 250 ml of water for 15–30 min, the result of which makes one cup (not 8 oz, but one dose). The amount of water used can be adjusted to patient taste in subsequent cups.
Dose:
Acute adult: 1 cup up to q2–3h
Chronic, adult: 1 cup tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Steam-Distilled Volatile Oil:
Oral: 1 drop up to q2–3h for 1–2 day for acute infections (do not use for more than 48 hours), not recommended for children and contraindicated in pregnancy
Topical: apply at least twice a day to affected areas, do not apply to large areas of skin (especially broken skin)
Ointment or cream: apply at least twice a day to affected areas
Capsules: these are not generally available.
If you need help formulating with this herb, or any other, you can use the formulation tool. Remember that when using this herb in a formula, due to synergy, you can usually use less.
Dose:
Acute, adult: 1–2 ml q2–3h
Chronic, adult: 0.5–1 ml tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Glycerite: not recommended (contains mostly fat-soluble constituents)
Decoction: 5 g (2–3 heaping tsp) of leaves, simmered, covered, in 250 ml of water for 15–30 min, the result of which makes one cup (not 8 oz, but one dose). The amount of water used can be adjusted to patient taste in subsequent cups.
Dose:
Acute adult: 1 cup up to q2–3h
Chronic, adult: 1 cup tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Steam-Distilled Volatile Oil:
Oral: 1 drop up to q2–3h for 1–2 day for acute infections (do not use for more than 48 hours), not recommended for children and contraindicated in pregnancy
Topical: apply at least twice a day to affected areas, do not apply to large areas of skin (especially broken skin)
Ointment or cream: apply at least twice a day to affected areas
Capsules: these are not generally available.
If you need help formulating with this herb, or any other, you can use the formulation tool. Remember that when using this herb in a formula, due to synergy, you can usually use less.
Other Names
Latin synonyms:
Current correct Latin binomial: Thuja occidentalis L
Chamaecyparis boursieri Carrière
Cupressus arborvitae O.Targ.Tozz
Retinispora glaucescens Hochst. ex Beissn.
Retinispora dubia Carrière
Retinispora ellwangeriana Carrière
Retinispora meldensis Carrière
Thuja compacta Standish ex Gordon
Thuja obtusa Moench
Thuja odorata Marshall
Thuja procera Salisb
Thuja tatarica Gordon
Thuja variegata Marshall
Thuja vervaeneana Van-Geert ex Gordon
English Common Names: thuja, arbor vitae, white cedar, northern white-cedar, eastern white-cedar
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Anishinaabemowin ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯᒧᐎᓐ (Ojibwe, Algonquian): giizhik, giizhikens, mitig azhitwaa ("holy tree"), nokomis giizhik ("grandmother cedar"), nokomis ("grandmother") (Geniusz 2009), giizhikaadagoog (white cedar boughs), nokomis gijikandug ("grandmother sky tree") (Herron 2002)
Kanienʼkéha (Mohawk, Algonquian): onandagwan dántsera', onu'da'garidatsera, onadagwadátz:era ("flat leaves/boughs") (Herrick 1977)
Nēhiyawēwin ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ (Cree, Algonquian): masîkîsk, mascakês (Clavelle 1997)
Oma͞eqnomenew (Menomini, Algonquian): kesa'sata'uk” and “kesa'wuna'ukai (referring to the bark, Smith 1923)
Hoocą́k hoit'éra (Winnebago, Siouan): waziparasge ("pine cedar") (Kindscher and Hurlburt 1998)
Lakȟótiyapi (Lakota, Siouan): ȟangté, ȟaŋté (Black Elk and Flying By 1998, might refer to Juniperus scopulorum), hanté blaská ("flat cedar")
Latin synonyms:
Current correct Latin binomial: Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don
Libocedrus craigiana Low ex Gordon
Libocedrus gigantea Low ex Gordon
Thuja gigantea Nutt.
Thuja douglasii Nutt. ex Parl.
Thuja menziesii Douglas ex Endl.
Thuja asplenifolia Carrière
English Common Names: red cedar, thuja
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Chinuk Wawa (Chinook Jargon): khalakwati (bark)
Athabascan:
Dena’ina Qenaga, Dena'inaq' (Tanaina): bex̱delchenii, bex̱delcheni chik’a (“wood that smells”)
Dena’ina Qenaga, Dena’inaq’ (Inner Inlet dialect): chənzuł (Saik’uz dialect, chənzul (Ulkatcho dialect)
Tse'khene (Sekani): yaʔmah’whudda chinneh, yaʔmah’daʔchegh
Witsuwit’en (Northern Carrier): simqin, hεt’əl (borrowed from Gitxsanimaax); tree: simggin, bark: hët’il
Chimacum:
kʷoʔlí·yot’ (Quileute): ts’aapis (tree), ts’apístch’it (thick outer bark), sikʷ’ooya (soft inner bark)
Eskimo-Aleut:
Sugpiaq (Alutiiq, Aleut): qar’usiq
Salish:
hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ (Halkomelem): x̌epá:y, x̌epáy, x̌pa̓:y (“lined bark”); sókw’em (outer bark); sókw’em (outer bark), x̌epá:y, x̌epáy, x̌pá:y (“lined bark,” wood), x̌pá:yelhlp, x̌páyelhp (tree), súsekw’, shxwt’ám:etsel (young tree); x̌peyʔ (wood), x̌peyʔ-əłp (tree), slə́wəy (inner bark); x̌péeyəłp, x̌péyəłp (wood), sləwiy (inner bark), sakʷ’im (outer bark), tsatáwi (tree, Upriver dialect); tree: x̌pey̓ulhp, branches: x̌pey̓cus, qwul̓ucus, st̓uc̓em, inner bark: sluwi’ (Island dialect)
LE₭EṈINEṈ (Northern Straits Salish dialect): x̌péy, x̌péy̓ (wood, tree), slə́wiʔ (inner bark), p̓alay̓ (outer bark), k̓əl, k̓əlay (bark in general)
ńseĺxčiń (Okanagan, Colville-Okanagan): mxiłp (tree), ćápaʔx̌ (root)
Nəxʷsƛ̓ay̓əmúcən (Klallam): xčaʔčačł (tree), x̌payʔ (wood), syəwiʔ (bark)
Nuxalk (Bella Coola): sqediłp (roots); tstastawłp (tree), tsaltx̌w (outer bark), łuq̓ałt (inner bark), ts̓aʔqax̌, ts̓ap̓ax̌ (bough tips), sim, siim (boughs twisted into rope)
q̓yʔq̓yʔɛmixʷq̓ɛnəm (Comox Salish): tex̌émay, t’ax̌amay, łaʔamin (tree), x̌épay (wood), yíʔgi (inner bark)
SENĆOŦEN (North Straits Salish dialect): tree, wood, canoe, post: x̌péy̓, inner bark: sləʔwiʔ, outer bark: č̓əle̓y̓, branches: x̌pey̓esəs, withes: st̓thəstésəs, rope: xəʔy̓əxwtən, roots: kʷəʔmləxʷ
šášíšáɬəm (Sechelt): tex̌émay, tex̌émay’ (tree), tex̌émayíya (branch), x̌épay (wood), sléway (inner bark), súkʷ’am (bark)
Snchitsu’umshtsn (Couer d’Alene): k̓wáysalqʷ, sk̓ʷust (“ghost-inherent”)
Sḵwx̱wú7mesh sníchim (Squamish): x̌pay’ (wood), x̌ápay’ay (standing tree), súkʷ’em (outer inner bark), slúway (inner inner bark)
təw'ánəxʷ (Skokomish, Twana): q̓ʷe’lí
xʷləmiʔčósən (Lummi): xʔpaiʔepł (tree), xʔpai (buds), slōwē’, slowé (bark)
Tlingit:
Łingít (Tlingit): łaax̱, laax̱, tī
Tsimshian:
Gitxsanimaax (Tsimshian): hat’t’l, hat’aʔi (inner bark); amhat’eʔl, amhat’aʔl (tree, “good for inner cedar bark”); simg̱an (tree)
Nisg̱a’a (Nishga): simg̱an (“best tree,” tree), ‘hat’al’ (inner bark), giḿist (fire starter made from inner bark), dihlkw (large basket made from inner bark), ýuusa’alt (small basket made from inner bark49), gokw (waterproof basket made from roots), k’okhl (rope made from roots), bana’a (dip nets made from roots49), wo’omhlkw (cradle made from wood), gal’ink (bentwood boxes made from wood)
Sm’álgyax (Sm’algyax): sṃg̱án (“real good”), smgan; amgan (mature tree large enough to make a canoe); na maasa amgan (bark); ganmoolk (powdered bark for starting fires)
Sgüüx̣s (Kitasoo): sṃgán (“real tree”); ʔamgán (small cedar, “good for tree")
Wakashan:
diitiid7aa7tx (Ditidaht): x̱ubis (wood), x̱ubpat (tree), pits’ip (inner bark), suubuuqʷaaʔdł (rope of withes)
ɦiɬtsʰaqʷ, Haíɫzaqv (Heiltsuk): kʷ’ak’as, dény’ás, pl. dídeny’ás (tree), dnás, dṇy’ás (inner bark), ts’áp’ax̱ (leaves), ts’áqems (outer bark), ts’élkálás, pl. ts’ítsaelkálas (boughs, limbs, roots for basket-making)
Kwak̓wala (Kwakiutl): wəlkʷ ́(mature tree), kʷ’xtłou’ (second growth tree), gʷelxm’es (sapling), dəmsməs, dənsm’əs, dxeseqʷ (young tree, good for bark), dəwix̌ (branch), tł’ənak (twigs), dənnas (bark), təx̌x̌əm (withe for weaving)
nuučaan̓uɫ (Nootka): ẖumiis (wood), pits’ip (inner bark), tł’aasmapt (young, second growth tree), ʕatłyuu (branches on tree)
qʷi·qʷi·diččaq (Makah): łeeʔišuukʷ (tree), pits’up (inner bark)
ʔuwíkʼala (Oowekyala): dṇyas (young tree), ts’ap’ax̱ (branches), dṇas (inner bark), kʷ’ak’as (tree)
X̄a’islak̓ala (Haisla): dúny’as, pl. dṇdṇy’as (young cedar tree/s), dṇàs (bark strips)
Isolates:
Ktunaxa (Kutenai): ʔits’nat̓ (KT9)
X̱aat Kíl (Haida): tree: ts’uu, ts’úu (tree); gi.id, giid, giixida (inner bark of small-medium trees); gaay, gáay, g̱aay (inner bark of old cedars); gałda, gahlda, gałda (outer bark of old cedars); sgisgal, sgisgál, sgisgil (withes)
Current correct Latin binomial: Thuja occidentalis L
Chamaecyparis boursieri Carrière
Cupressus arborvitae O.Targ.Tozz
Retinispora glaucescens Hochst. ex Beissn.
Retinispora dubia Carrière
Retinispora ellwangeriana Carrière
Retinispora meldensis Carrière
Thuja compacta Standish ex Gordon
Thuja obtusa Moench
Thuja odorata Marshall
Thuja procera Salisb
Thuja tatarica Gordon
Thuja variegata Marshall
Thuja vervaeneana Van-Geert ex Gordon
English Common Names: thuja, arbor vitae, white cedar, northern white-cedar, eastern white-cedar
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Anishinaabemowin ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯᒧᐎᓐ (Ojibwe, Algonquian): giizhik, giizhikens, mitig azhitwaa ("holy tree"), nokomis giizhik ("grandmother cedar"), nokomis ("grandmother") (Geniusz 2009), giizhikaadagoog (white cedar boughs), nokomis gijikandug ("grandmother sky tree") (Herron 2002)
Kanienʼkéha (Mohawk, Algonquian): onandagwan dántsera', onu'da'garidatsera, onadagwadátz:era ("flat leaves/boughs") (Herrick 1977)
Nēhiyawēwin ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ (Cree, Algonquian): masîkîsk, mascakês (Clavelle 1997)
Oma͞eqnomenew (Menomini, Algonquian): kesa'sata'uk” and “kesa'wuna'ukai (referring to the bark, Smith 1923)
Hoocą́k hoit'éra (Winnebago, Siouan): waziparasge ("pine cedar") (Kindscher and Hurlburt 1998)
Lakȟótiyapi (Lakota, Siouan): ȟangté, ȟaŋté (Black Elk and Flying By 1998, might refer to Juniperus scopulorum), hanté blaská ("flat cedar")
Latin synonyms:
Current correct Latin binomial: Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don
Libocedrus craigiana Low ex Gordon
Libocedrus gigantea Low ex Gordon
Thuja gigantea Nutt.
Thuja douglasii Nutt. ex Parl.
Thuja menziesii Douglas ex Endl.
Thuja asplenifolia Carrière
English Common Names: red cedar, thuja
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Chinuk Wawa (Chinook Jargon): khalakwati (bark)
Athabascan:
Dena’ina Qenaga, Dena'inaq' (Tanaina): bex̱delchenii, bex̱delcheni chik’a (“wood that smells”)
Dena’ina Qenaga, Dena’inaq’ (Inner Inlet dialect): chənzuł (Saik’uz dialect, chənzul (Ulkatcho dialect)
Tse'khene (Sekani): yaʔmah’whudda chinneh, yaʔmah’daʔchegh
Witsuwit’en (Northern Carrier): simqin, hεt’əl (borrowed from Gitxsanimaax); tree: simggin, bark: hët’il
Chimacum:
kʷoʔlí·yot’ (Quileute): ts’aapis (tree), ts’apístch’it (thick outer bark), sikʷ’ooya (soft inner bark)
Eskimo-Aleut:
Sugpiaq (Alutiiq, Aleut): qar’usiq
Salish:
hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ (Halkomelem): x̌epá:y, x̌epáy, x̌pa̓:y (“lined bark”); sókw’em (outer bark); sókw’em (outer bark), x̌epá:y, x̌epáy, x̌pá:y (“lined bark,” wood), x̌pá:yelhlp, x̌páyelhp (tree), súsekw’, shxwt’ám:etsel (young tree); x̌peyʔ (wood), x̌peyʔ-əłp (tree), slə́wəy (inner bark); x̌péeyəłp, x̌péyəłp (wood), sləwiy (inner bark), sakʷ’im (outer bark), tsatáwi (tree, Upriver dialect); tree: x̌pey̓ulhp, branches: x̌pey̓cus, qwul̓ucus, st̓uc̓em, inner bark: sluwi’ (Island dialect)
LE₭EṈINEṈ (Northern Straits Salish dialect): x̌péy, x̌péy̓ (wood, tree), slə́wiʔ (inner bark), p̓alay̓ (outer bark), k̓əl, k̓əlay (bark in general)
ńseĺxčiń (Okanagan, Colville-Okanagan): mxiłp (tree), ćápaʔx̌ (root)
Nəxʷsƛ̓ay̓əmúcən (Klallam): xčaʔčačł (tree), x̌payʔ (wood), syəwiʔ (bark)
Nuxalk (Bella Coola): sqediłp (roots); tstastawłp (tree), tsaltx̌w (outer bark), łuq̓ałt (inner bark), ts̓aʔqax̌, ts̓ap̓ax̌ (bough tips), sim, siim (boughs twisted into rope)
q̓yʔq̓yʔɛmixʷq̓ɛnəm (Comox Salish): tex̌émay, t’ax̌amay, łaʔamin (tree), x̌épay (wood), yíʔgi (inner bark)
SENĆOŦEN (North Straits Salish dialect): tree, wood, canoe, post: x̌péy̓, inner bark: sləʔwiʔ, outer bark: č̓əle̓y̓, branches: x̌pey̓esəs, withes: st̓thəstésəs, rope: xəʔy̓əxwtən, roots: kʷəʔmləxʷ
šášíšáɬəm (Sechelt): tex̌émay, tex̌émay’ (tree), tex̌émayíya (branch), x̌épay (wood), sléway (inner bark), súkʷ’am (bark)
Snchitsu’umshtsn (Couer d’Alene): k̓wáysalqʷ, sk̓ʷust (“ghost-inherent”)
Sḵwx̱wú7mesh sníchim (Squamish): x̌pay’ (wood), x̌ápay’ay (standing tree), súkʷ’em (outer inner bark), slúway (inner inner bark)
təw'ánəxʷ (Skokomish, Twana): q̓ʷe’lí
xʷləmiʔčósən (Lummi): xʔpaiʔepł (tree), xʔpai (buds), slōwē’, slowé (bark)
Tlingit:
Łingít (Tlingit): łaax̱, laax̱, tī
Tsimshian:
Gitxsanimaax (Tsimshian): hat’t’l, hat’aʔi (inner bark); amhat’eʔl, amhat’aʔl (tree, “good for inner cedar bark”); simg̱an (tree)
Nisg̱a’a (Nishga): simg̱an (“best tree,” tree), ‘hat’al’ (inner bark), giḿist (fire starter made from inner bark), dihlkw (large basket made from inner bark), ýuusa’alt (small basket made from inner bark49), gokw (waterproof basket made from roots), k’okhl (rope made from roots), bana’a (dip nets made from roots49), wo’omhlkw (cradle made from wood), gal’ink (bentwood boxes made from wood)
Sm’álgyax (Sm’algyax): sṃg̱án (“real good”), smgan; amgan (mature tree large enough to make a canoe); na maasa amgan (bark); ganmoolk (powdered bark for starting fires)
Sgüüx̣s (Kitasoo): sṃgán (“real tree”); ʔamgán (small cedar, “good for tree")
Wakashan:
diitiid7aa7tx (Ditidaht): x̱ubis (wood), x̱ubpat (tree), pits’ip (inner bark), suubuuqʷaaʔdł (rope of withes)
ɦiɬtsʰaqʷ, Haíɫzaqv (Heiltsuk): kʷ’ak’as, dény’ás, pl. dídeny’ás (tree), dnás, dṇy’ás (inner bark), ts’áp’ax̱ (leaves), ts’áqems (outer bark), ts’élkálás, pl. ts’ítsaelkálas (boughs, limbs, roots for basket-making)
Kwak̓wala (Kwakiutl): wəlkʷ ́(mature tree), kʷ’xtłou’ (second growth tree), gʷelxm’es (sapling), dəmsməs, dənsm’əs, dxeseqʷ (young tree, good for bark), dəwix̌ (branch), tł’ənak (twigs), dənnas (bark), təx̌x̌əm (withe for weaving)
nuučaan̓uɫ (Nootka): ẖumiis (wood), pits’ip (inner bark), tł’aasmapt (young, second growth tree), ʕatłyuu (branches on tree)
qʷi·qʷi·diččaq (Makah): łeeʔišuukʷ (tree), pits’up (inner bark)
ʔuwíkʼala (Oowekyala): dṇyas (young tree), ts’ap’ax̱ (branches), dṇas (inner bark), kʷ’ak’as (tree)
X̄a’islak̓ala (Haisla): dúny’as, pl. dṇdṇy’as (young cedar tree/s), dṇàs (bark strips)
Isolates:
Ktunaxa (Kutenai): ʔits’nat̓ (KT9)
X̱aat Kíl (Haida): tree: ts’uu, ts’úu (tree); gi.id, giid, giixida (inner bark of small-medium trees); gaay, gáay, g̱aay (inner bark of old cedars); gałda, gahlda, gałda (outer bark of old cedars); sgisgal, sgisgál, sgisgil (withes)
Interchangeability of Species
There are a total of five species in the Thuja genus world-wide. The two covered in this monograph that are native to North America, and there are three native to Asia: T. sutchuenensis (Sichuan thuja), T. koraiensis (Korean thuja), and T. standishii (Japanese thuja).
T. occidentalis and T. plicata appear to be largely interchangeable, and are treated as such here.
Both species maybe good local alternatives to endangered species in the Tabebuia and Handroanthus genera (pau d'arco).
T. occidentalis and T. plicata appear to be largely interchangeable, and are treated as such here.
Both species maybe good local alternatives to endangered species in the Tabebuia and Handroanthus genera (pau d'arco).
Advanced Clinical Information
Additional Actions:
Polysaccharides from T. occidentalis have been shown to be mitogenic for T helper cells in vitro (Gohla, et al. 1988).
An extract of T. occidentalis with Echinacea purpurea stimulatted Kupffer cell phagocytosis in vitro (Vömel 1985).
Tropolones in T. plicata are beta adrenergic antagonists in vitro (Belleau and Burba 1963).
Additional Indications:
- Immunomodulating
- Diuretic (akin to Juniperus spp in the same family)
- Emmenagogue (Mills and Bone 2000)
Polysaccharides from T. occidentalis have been shown to be mitogenic for T helper cells in vitro (Gohla, et al. 1988).
An extract of T. occidentalis with Echinacea purpurea stimulatted Kupffer cell phagocytosis in vitro (Vömel 1985).
Tropolones in T. plicata are beta adrenergic antagonists in vitro (Belleau and Burba 1963).
Additional Indications:
- Cancer
- Amenorrhea
- Urinary incontinence
- Enuresis
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia
- Rheumatism
- Cysts and other benign masses (Mills and Bone 2000)
Classic Formulas
Esberitox
Arbor vitae is one component of the proprietary German formula known as Esberitox, along with Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower) and E. pallida (pale coneflower) roots, and Baptisia tinctoria (wild indigo) root. It is used primary as an immune stimulant and antiviral to treat people with viral upper respiratory tract infections (Wüstenberg, et al. et al. 1999). Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials confirm it is effective for people with such infections (Naser, et al. 2005; Hentschel, et al. 2000). A large open trial confirms its safety and efficacy in real-world clinical settings (Henneicke-von Zepelin, et al. 1999).
Usual doses per chewable tablet:
4–9:1 extract of Thuja occidentalis 2 mg
4–9:1 extract of Echinacea spp 7.5 mg
4–9:1 extract of Baptisia tinctoria 10 mg
Dose:
Age >12 yr: 3 tablets tid
Age 7–12 yr: 2 tablets tid
2–6 yr: 1 tablet tid
It has also been studied and shown to offset the bone marrow toxicity of radiation and chemotherapy in breast cancer patients, with a trend toward reducing the number of infections suffered during therapy (Bendel, et al. 1989). Another clinical trial found that it increased titers of antibodies against hepatitis B after vaccination, without increasing the percentage of people who seroconverted (Bostelmann, et al. 2002).
Arbor vitae is one component of the proprietary German formula known as Esberitox, along with Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower) and E. pallida (pale coneflower) roots, and Baptisia tinctoria (wild indigo) root. It is used primary as an immune stimulant and antiviral to treat people with viral upper respiratory tract infections (Wüstenberg, et al. et al. 1999). Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials confirm it is effective for people with such infections (Naser, et al. 2005; Hentschel, et al. 2000). A large open trial confirms its safety and efficacy in real-world clinical settings (Henneicke-von Zepelin, et al. 1999).
Usual doses per chewable tablet:
4–9:1 extract of Thuja occidentalis 2 mg
4–9:1 extract of Echinacea spp 7.5 mg
4–9:1 extract of Baptisia tinctoria 10 mg
Dose:
Age >12 yr: 3 tablets tid
Age 7–12 yr: 2 tablets tid
2–6 yr: 1 tablet tid
It has also been studied and shown to offset the bone marrow toxicity of radiation and chemotherapy in breast cancer patients, with a trend toward reducing the number of infections suffered during therapy (Bendel, et al. 1989). Another clinical trial found that it increased titers of antibodies against hepatitis B after vaccination, without increasing the percentage of people who seroconverted (Bostelmann, et al. 2002).
Monograph from Eclectic Materia Medica (Felter 1922)
THUJA
The branchlets and leaves of Thuja occidentalis, Linné (Nat. Ord. Cupressaceae). Indigenous to Canada and the United States, on the rocky borders of streams and lakes, and in swamps.
Common Names: Arbor Vitae, Yellow Cedar, False White Cedar, Tree of Life.
Principal Constituents.--Oleum Thuja, (Oil of Arbor Vitae), having a camphoraceous odor and tansy-like taste, and composed of dextro-pinene, laevofenchone, and dextro-thujone; a bitter glucoside, pinipicrin, and thujin(C20H22O12), an astringent, yellow glucoside closely related to quercitrin.
Preparations.--1. Specific Medicine Thuja. Dose, 1 to 30 drops. 2. Aqueous Thuja. Dose, 1 to 40 drops; chiefly used locally. 3. Long’s Thuja, An Ointment of Thuja.
Specific Indications.--Vesical irritation and atony; enuresis due to atony; urinal incontinence in children due to a weak bladder; dribbling of the urine in the aged, not due to paralysis or growths; urine expelled upon exertion as coughing, etc.; catarrhal flow from bladder or genitalia of male or female; chronic prostatitis; warty excrescences, and dry forms of eczema. Locally: fissured anus, prolapsus ani, pruritus in mucous membranes; venereal discharges; trachoma; warts; naevi; urethral caruncles; and hydrocele.
Action.--In small doses thuja is tonic and increases the activities of the kidneys. Large doses may provoke the irritant effects common to the turpentines and balsams. It has been asserted to have caused abortion, a doubtful effect, but attributed secondarily to violent gastric and intestinal irritation, resulting from excessive amounts of the drug. In many respects it resembles the activities of savin; though unlike the latter it is not a poison.
Therapy.--External. Locally thuja is stimulant, subastringent, deodorant and antiseptic. It is especially useful for the restraint and reduction of hypertrophic changes in the mucous and cutaneous tissues. It will deaden and repress fungous granulations, and for this purpose may be applied to "Proud flesh" and "ingrown nail" (both overgrown granulations). Alcoholic preparations of thuja may be employed to retard fungoid granulation and ulceration in epithelioma (does not cure), bed sores, sloughing wounds, fistulae, and to overcome the stench of senile and other forms of gangrene. It has a good record in curing papillomata and condylomata (upon the nates) when soft and there is foul exudation; and often succeeds in controlling venereal or genital warts. Alcoholic preparations of thuja are generally conceded to be the best local and kindly acting vegetable medicines for the dispersal of common warts or verruccae on any part of the body. It is applied locally and with reputed greater success hypodermatically into the base of the growth. Our personal experience with it for the removal of warts has been negative. Rarely it controls bleeding and ameliorates in hemorrhoids and prolapsus ani. Persisted in, though at first painful, it has cured fissure of the anus. Howe valued it for bulging naevi, and his once famous method of curing hydrocele with it is now little practiced. As compared with tincture of iodine or with carbolic acid it is less painful, but unlike the latter free from poisonous consequences through absorption. Howe's method was as follows: Tap and drain the tunica vaginalis testis, and inject two drachms of a solution of specific medicine thuja (one part) in warm sterile water (seven parts). Knead the tissues thoroughly so that the fluid is made to penetrate every part of the sac. More or less burning pain ensues, together with a greater or less degree of swelling; after sub sidence of the latter, if the procedure has been carefully executed, adhesion of the contact surfaces from the inflammation provoked results. Specific medicine thuja has been used to remove urethral caruncle and for the relief of chronic dry eczema of a furfuraceous character. Dropped upon hot water and inhaled it is of benefit in fetid sore throat, chronic and fetid bronchitis, bronchorrhea, and chronic nasal and retro-nasal catarrh. In all of the foregoing conditions the alcoholic preparations may be employed from full strength to such a dilution as the individual cases demand.
Aqueous thuja is invaluable to relieve pain and promote quick healing in soft pultaceous chancroids. It quickly allays pain, checks the discharge and odor, prevents lymphatic engorgement, and stimulates healing. It has no effect upon hard chancre, nor is it in any sense to be regarded as antisyphilitic. Wherever upon sensitive tissues the alcoholic preparations are inadvisable, the aqueous preparation may be substituted. It has been especially useful in catarrhal granulation of the cervix uteri (tampon); its use being preceded by a hot douche. For acute gonorrhea the following injection is most valuable: Rx Colorless Hydrastis; Aqueous Thuja, each 1 part; Warm Water, 4 parts. Mix. Sig.: Inject every three hours. If there is much soreness add one part of Specific Medicine Hamamelis. The same mixture gives good results in subacute and chronic proctitis, following dysentery. Locally applied alone, or in the above-named combination, it may be used upon balanitis, herpetic ulcers, and abrasions and excoriations of the glans penis. As a local wash for mucous erosions in the mouth, for sore nipples, and for chapped hands it is pleasant and often efficient.
Ointment of Thuja is the preferred thuja preparation for granular ophthalmia or simple trachoma. When the granules are soft and pultaceous a wetted alum pencil may be quickly passed over the everted lid, making but one sweep at each treatment. The parts are then dried, especially if the subconjunctival tissue is much infiltrated; and the ointment applied by means of a camel's-hair pencil. This should be done once a day. Fleeting pain is experienced. Absolute cleanliness should be insisted upon when home treatment is carried out, and constitutional remedies administered when conditions warrant them.
Internal. Thuja is stimulant, subastringent, and antiseptic. Internally its effects resemble those of the terebinths, particularly savin, though it is less energetic than the latter. It is employed chiefly for its effects upon the mucous tracts—particularly the broncho-pulmonic and genito-urinary. While it has been advised (by inhalation from hot water) for hemoptysis, we have far better agents for this purpose; but in bronchial affections with excessive and fetid expectoration it is of considerable value and ranks well with other terebinthinates. Its most specific action is upon the bladder controlling urinal incontinence in all forms except those excited by urinary concretions, paretic conditions, worms, or malignant growths. A most marked effect for good comes from its use for the relief of dribbling of urine in the aged and the young, provided paralysis does not exist in the former, or preputial adhesion or phymosis is not present in the latter. Doses of five to ten drops of the specific medicine often relieve nocturnal enuresis in children, when merely functional. Lack of tone in the muscularis mucosae appears to be the indication for it. The bladder seems too weak to prevent leakage, and for this debility it is especially useful when coughing or straining at stool, or the lifting of weighty objects causes an expulsion of urine. The doses mentioned also aid the local use of aqueous thuja in gleet when accompanied by granular urethritis. In habitual bed wetting the following is sometimes more effectual than thuja alone: Rx Specific Medicine Thuja, 30 drops; Specific Medicine Belladonna, 20 drops; Water, enough to make 4 fluidounces. Mix. Sig.: One teaspoonful four times a day. Thuja gives comfort and relief in that unfortunate condition in old men with enlarged prostate in which the urine constantly dribbles, entailing much discomfort and misery, and producing unsightly stains upon the clothing. Whether it has any power to reduce an enlarged prostate has not been determined, but that it relieves weakness of the neck of the bladder is well established. Some claim that thuja is especially serviceable in cystic irritability when associated with eczema or with gout. Like most products of the conifers, thuja sometimes proves emmenagogue and stimulates in atonic amenorrhea when the genital tissues are flabby and lifeless.
The branchlets and leaves of Thuja occidentalis, Linné (Nat. Ord. Cupressaceae). Indigenous to Canada and the United States, on the rocky borders of streams and lakes, and in swamps.
Common Names: Arbor Vitae, Yellow Cedar, False White Cedar, Tree of Life.
Principal Constituents.--Oleum Thuja, (Oil of Arbor Vitae), having a camphoraceous odor and tansy-like taste, and composed of dextro-pinene, laevofenchone, and dextro-thujone; a bitter glucoside, pinipicrin, and thujin(C20H22O12), an astringent, yellow glucoside closely related to quercitrin.
Preparations.--1. Specific Medicine Thuja. Dose, 1 to 30 drops. 2. Aqueous Thuja. Dose, 1 to 40 drops; chiefly used locally. 3. Long’s Thuja, An Ointment of Thuja.
Specific Indications.--Vesical irritation and atony; enuresis due to atony; urinal incontinence in children due to a weak bladder; dribbling of the urine in the aged, not due to paralysis or growths; urine expelled upon exertion as coughing, etc.; catarrhal flow from bladder or genitalia of male or female; chronic prostatitis; warty excrescences, and dry forms of eczema. Locally: fissured anus, prolapsus ani, pruritus in mucous membranes; venereal discharges; trachoma; warts; naevi; urethral caruncles; and hydrocele.
Action.--In small doses thuja is tonic and increases the activities of the kidneys. Large doses may provoke the irritant effects common to the turpentines and balsams. It has been asserted to have caused abortion, a doubtful effect, but attributed secondarily to violent gastric and intestinal irritation, resulting from excessive amounts of the drug. In many respects it resembles the activities of savin; though unlike the latter it is not a poison.
Therapy.--External. Locally thuja is stimulant, subastringent, deodorant and antiseptic. It is especially useful for the restraint and reduction of hypertrophic changes in the mucous and cutaneous tissues. It will deaden and repress fungous granulations, and for this purpose may be applied to "Proud flesh" and "ingrown nail" (both overgrown granulations). Alcoholic preparations of thuja may be employed to retard fungoid granulation and ulceration in epithelioma (does not cure), bed sores, sloughing wounds, fistulae, and to overcome the stench of senile and other forms of gangrene. It has a good record in curing papillomata and condylomata (upon the nates) when soft and there is foul exudation; and often succeeds in controlling venereal or genital warts. Alcoholic preparations of thuja are generally conceded to be the best local and kindly acting vegetable medicines for the dispersal of common warts or verruccae on any part of the body. It is applied locally and with reputed greater success hypodermatically into the base of the growth. Our personal experience with it for the removal of warts has been negative. Rarely it controls bleeding and ameliorates in hemorrhoids and prolapsus ani. Persisted in, though at first painful, it has cured fissure of the anus. Howe valued it for bulging naevi, and his once famous method of curing hydrocele with it is now little practiced. As compared with tincture of iodine or with carbolic acid it is less painful, but unlike the latter free from poisonous consequences through absorption. Howe's method was as follows: Tap and drain the tunica vaginalis testis, and inject two drachms of a solution of specific medicine thuja (one part) in warm sterile water (seven parts). Knead the tissues thoroughly so that the fluid is made to penetrate every part of the sac. More or less burning pain ensues, together with a greater or less degree of swelling; after sub sidence of the latter, if the procedure has been carefully executed, adhesion of the contact surfaces from the inflammation provoked results. Specific medicine thuja has been used to remove urethral caruncle and for the relief of chronic dry eczema of a furfuraceous character. Dropped upon hot water and inhaled it is of benefit in fetid sore throat, chronic and fetid bronchitis, bronchorrhea, and chronic nasal and retro-nasal catarrh. In all of the foregoing conditions the alcoholic preparations may be employed from full strength to such a dilution as the individual cases demand.
Aqueous thuja is invaluable to relieve pain and promote quick healing in soft pultaceous chancroids. It quickly allays pain, checks the discharge and odor, prevents lymphatic engorgement, and stimulates healing. It has no effect upon hard chancre, nor is it in any sense to be regarded as antisyphilitic. Wherever upon sensitive tissues the alcoholic preparations are inadvisable, the aqueous preparation may be substituted. It has been especially useful in catarrhal granulation of the cervix uteri (tampon); its use being preceded by a hot douche. For acute gonorrhea the following injection is most valuable: Rx Colorless Hydrastis; Aqueous Thuja, each 1 part; Warm Water, 4 parts. Mix. Sig.: Inject every three hours. If there is much soreness add one part of Specific Medicine Hamamelis. The same mixture gives good results in subacute and chronic proctitis, following dysentery. Locally applied alone, or in the above-named combination, it may be used upon balanitis, herpetic ulcers, and abrasions and excoriations of the glans penis. As a local wash for mucous erosions in the mouth, for sore nipples, and for chapped hands it is pleasant and often efficient.
Ointment of Thuja is the preferred thuja preparation for granular ophthalmia or simple trachoma. When the granules are soft and pultaceous a wetted alum pencil may be quickly passed over the everted lid, making but one sweep at each treatment. The parts are then dried, especially if the subconjunctival tissue is much infiltrated; and the ointment applied by means of a camel's-hair pencil. This should be done once a day. Fleeting pain is experienced. Absolute cleanliness should be insisted upon when home treatment is carried out, and constitutional remedies administered when conditions warrant them.
Internal. Thuja is stimulant, subastringent, and antiseptic. Internally its effects resemble those of the terebinths, particularly savin, though it is less energetic than the latter. It is employed chiefly for its effects upon the mucous tracts—particularly the broncho-pulmonic and genito-urinary. While it has been advised (by inhalation from hot water) for hemoptysis, we have far better agents for this purpose; but in bronchial affections with excessive and fetid expectoration it is of considerable value and ranks well with other terebinthinates. Its most specific action is upon the bladder controlling urinal incontinence in all forms except those excited by urinary concretions, paretic conditions, worms, or malignant growths. A most marked effect for good comes from its use for the relief of dribbling of urine in the aged and the young, provided paralysis does not exist in the former, or preputial adhesion or phymosis is not present in the latter. Doses of five to ten drops of the specific medicine often relieve nocturnal enuresis in children, when merely functional. Lack of tone in the muscularis mucosae appears to be the indication for it. The bladder seems too weak to prevent leakage, and for this debility it is especially useful when coughing or straining at stool, or the lifting of weighty objects causes an expulsion of urine. The doses mentioned also aid the local use of aqueous thuja in gleet when accompanied by granular urethritis. In habitual bed wetting the following is sometimes more effectual than thuja alone: Rx Specific Medicine Thuja, 30 drops; Specific Medicine Belladonna, 20 drops; Water, enough to make 4 fluidounces. Mix. Sig.: One teaspoonful four times a day. Thuja gives comfort and relief in that unfortunate condition in old men with enlarged prostate in which the urine constantly dribbles, entailing much discomfort and misery, and producing unsightly stains upon the clothing. Whether it has any power to reduce an enlarged prostate has not been determined, but that it relieves weakness of the neck of the bladder is well established. Some claim that thuja is especially serviceable in cystic irritability when associated with eczema or with gout. Like most products of the conifers, thuja sometimes proves emmenagogue and stimulates in atonic amenorrhea when the genital tissues are flabby and lifeless.
Ethnobotanical Reports
From Algonquin Ethnobotany by Black 1980:
46. Thuja occidentalis L. Arbor Vitae, White Cedar, Cèdre, Balai
At River Desert the branches are used for the steam bath used in treating colds and fevers and for women after childbirth. A tea is made from the cones for treating babies' colic. The rotten wood is powdered and used for ashes and skin irritations. At Barrière the branches are crushed and boiling water is poured over them. The steam produced is beneficial for toothache. A medicinal tea is also made by boiling the branches which is taken for rheumatism. At Grand Lake Victoria a tea is made to treat menstrual disorders. Its medicinal use was not reported at Obedjiwan or Weymontaching. [These names refer to modern First People band settlements.]
The Michigan Chippewa use white cedar twigs which they burn to disinfect houses into which a contagious disease has been introduced, notably smallpox. The twigs are also used in the sweat or vapor bath and are burned as incense. The leaves are infused to make a tea which is combined with ground hemlock (Gilmore 1933:123). The Minnesota and Wisconsin Chippewa use the leaves which are crushed and applied for headache (Hoffman 1891:198). They also make a decoction which they heat to produce fumes inhaled for backaches (1891:198). The Chippewa also use the leaves together with ironwood (Ostrya) to make a cough syrup (Densmore 1928:340). They char the wood which is then mixed with bear's gall. This is applied by pricking itinto the temples of a patient suffering from convulsions (1928:340). The Flambeau Ojibwa use the leaves to prepare a tea for headache. They are also used to make a purifying incense in the medicine lodge ceremonies. The Pillager Ojibwa use white cedar in the sweat bath and drink a tea of cedar bark which is beneficial in treating coughs and purifying blood (Smith 1932:380).
The Menomini use white cedar extensively in medicine. It is used in the sweat bath and the inner bark is steeped to make a tea for menstrual disorders. This tea is also taken for colds, particularly when these result in menstrual difficulties. The leaves are used in a smudge to revive patients who have lost consciousness. The inner bark is also used as a seasoner for other medicines (Smith 1923:46).
The Abenaki use cedar to treat swellings. It is also used inmedicinal pillows (Rousseau 1947:155).
The Potawatomi use the leaves to make poultices and also in combinations with other ingredients for a variety of medicines. It serves also as a seasoning for other medicines. They use the leaves to make a purifying smudge (Smith 1933:71).
At Pt. Bleue the twig ends are beaten with an axe or stone to mash them. These are then steeped in boiling water and applied over the heart for pain. Gum of the cedar is applied in a similar way (Tantaquidgeon 1932:266).
The Penobscot use the leaves to make a poultice for swollen hands or feet. Cedar is also found in a combination medicine which is used as a poultice along with lambkill (Kalmia angustifolia') and salt. Cedar boughs are part of the sudorific for the sweat lodge. Partridge crops containing cedar buds are also sometimes included. The other plants are sweet flag (Acorus calamus), fir (Abies balsamea), lambkill (Kalmia angustifolia), alder (Alnus), witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), prince's pine (Chimaphila), and brake (Pteridium) (Speck 1917:309, 311, 312).
Marie-Victorin mentions the use of white cedar in popular medicine and by Indians (1964:140).
The Montagnais bruise and steep twigs to make a sweat drink. This is a type of treatment used to induce sweating (Speck 1917:315).
46. Thuja occidentalis L. Arbor Vitae, White Cedar, Cèdre, Balai
At River Desert the branches are used for the steam bath used in treating colds and fevers and for women after childbirth. A tea is made from the cones for treating babies' colic. The rotten wood is powdered and used for ashes and skin irritations. At Barrière the branches are crushed and boiling water is poured over them. The steam produced is beneficial for toothache. A medicinal tea is also made by boiling the branches which is taken for rheumatism. At Grand Lake Victoria a tea is made to treat menstrual disorders. Its medicinal use was not reported at Obedjiwan or Weymontaching. [These names refer to modern First People band settlements.]
The Michigan Chippewa use white cedar twigs which they burn to disinfect houses into which a contagious disease has been introduced, notably smallpox. The twigs are also used in the sweat or vapor bath and are burned as incense. The leaves are infused to make a tea which is combined with ground hemlock (Gilmore 1933:123). The Minnesota and Wisconsin Chippewa use the leaves which are crushed and applied for headache (Hoffman 1891:198). They also make a decoction which they heat to produce fumes inhaled for backaches (1891:198). The Chippewa also use the leaves together with ironwood (Ostrya) to make a cough syrup (Densmore 1928:340). They char the wood which is then mixed with bear's gall. This is applied by pricking itinto the temples of a patient suffering from convulsions (1928:340). The Flambeau Ojibwa use the leaves to prepare a tea for headache. They are also used to make a purifying incense in the medicine lodge ceremonies. The Pillager Ojibwa use white cedar in the sweat bath and drink a tea of cedar bark which is beneficial in treating coughs and purifying blood (Smith 1932:380).
The Menomini use white cedar extensively in medicine. It is used in the sweat bath and the inner bark is steeped to make a tea for menstrual disorders. This tea is also taken for colds, particularly when these result in menstrual difficulties. The leaves are used in a smudge to revive patients who have lost consciousness. The inner bark is also used as a seasoner for other medicines (Smith 1923:46).
The Abenaki use cedar to treat swellings. It is also used inmedicinal pillows (Rousseau 1947:155).
The Potawatomi use the leaves to make poultices and also in combinations with other ingredients for a variety of medicines. It serves also as a seasoning for other medicines. They use the leaves to make a purifying smudge (Smith 1933:71).
At Pt. Bleue the twig ends are beaten with an axe or stone to mash them. These are then steeped in boiling water and applied over the heart for pain. Gum of the cedar is applied in a similar way (Tantaquidgeon 1932:266).
The Penobscot use the leaves to make a poultice for swollen hands or feet. Cedar is also found in a combination medicine which is used as a poultice along with lambkill (Kalmia angustifolia') and salt. Cedar boughs are part of the sudorific for the sweat lodge. Partridge crops containing cedar buds are also sometimes included. The other plants are sweet flag (Acorus calamus), fir (Abies balsamea), lambkill (Kalmia angustifolia), alder (Alnus), witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), prince's pine (Chimaphila), and brake (Pteridium) (Speck 1917:309, 311, 312).
Marie-Victorin mentions the use of white cedar in popular medicine and by Indians (1964:140).
The Montagnais bruise and steep twigs to make a sweat drink. This is a type of treatment used to induce sweating (Speck 1917:315).
Botanical Information
Botanical Description:
T. plicata is the only species in the genus found in its native range. These trees can live a very long time, with some specimens dated at more than 1,000 years. The tree is monoecious with male and female cones on different branches at different heights (male usually lower). Male cones have a reddish cast while female cones are green. Pollination occurs in the spring to early summer (later in colder climes). Female cones bear 3–6 seeds each.
Native range:
T. occidentalis is found across eastern Canada (from Manitoba to Ontario) and the northeastern US, as far south as Tennessee. This tree tends to prefer swampy regions, riparian areas, or other wet areas. Sometimes it is found in dense forests. In the southern end of its range it prefers mountainous terrain. It has been introduced into Europe (as early as 1536).
T. plicata is found in the northwestern US and western Canada. It is most common in coastal Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia, but ranges from northern California to Alaska. It is also found inland in British Columbia, Idaho and Montana. Like T. occidentalis, it prefers very damp conditions though it can withstand fairly dry conditions as well.
T. plicata is the only species in the genus found in its native range. These trees can live a very long time, with some specimens dated at more than 1,000 years. The tree is monoecious with male and female cones on different branches at different heights (male usually lower). Male cones have a reddish cast while female cones are green. Pollination occurs in the spring to early summer (later in colder climes). Female cones bear 3–6 seeds each.
Native range:
T. occidentalis is found across eastern Canada (from Manitoba to Ontario) and the northeastern US, as far south as Tennessee. This tree tends to prefer swampy regions, riparian areas, or other wet areas. Sometimes it is found in dense forests. In the southern end of its range it prefers mountainous terrain. It has been introduced into Europe (as early as 1536).
T. plicata is found in the northwestern US and western Canada. It is most common in coastal Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia, but ranges from northern California to Alaska. It is also found inland in British Columbia, Idaho and Montana. Like T. occidentalis, it prefers very damp conditions though it can withstand fairly dry conditions as well.
Harvest, Cultivation, and Ecology
Cultivation: These trees are widely planted both in horticulture and in sylviculture.
Wildcrafting: Wildcrafting of the needles is widespread and likely does not harm the tree, as new leaves will grow and only so many can realistically be harvested. Bark used for any purpose should only be taken in partial strips so as to avoid girdling and killing the tree.
Ecological Status: T. occidentalis and T. plicata are still widespread. They are logged and used for a variety of applications, which is the only significant threat to them besides habitat loss. Remaining western red cedar volumes in 1988 were said to be 8 billion square feet in the United States (Gedney and Oswald 1988).
Wildcrafting: Wildcrafting of the needles is widespread and likely does not harm the tree, as new leaves will grow and only so many can realistically be harvested. Bark used for any purpose should only be taken in partial strips so as to avoid girdling and killing the tree.
Ecological Status: T. occidentalis and T. plicata are still widespread. They are logged and used for a variety of applications, which is the only significant threat to them besides habitat loss. Remaining western red cedar volumes in 1988 were said to be 8 billion square feet in the United States (Gedney and Oswald 1988).
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Smith HH (1923) "Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians" Bull Public Museum City Milwaukee 4(1):1–174.
Smith HH (1932) "Ethnobotany of the Ojibwa Indians" Bull Public Museum City Milwaukee 4(3):327–525.
Smith HH (1933) "Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians" Bull Public Museum City Milwaukee 7(1):1–230.
Speck FG (1917) Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Congress of Americanists, Washington:303–21.
Tantaquidgeon G (1932) "Notes on the origin and uses of plants of the Lake St. John Montagnais" J Amer Folklore 45:265–7.
Valsa JO, Felzenszwalb I (2001) “Genotoxic evaluation of the effect of Thuya occidentalys [sic] tinctures” Rev Bras Biol 61(2):329–32.
Vömel T (1985) "Effects of a plant immunostimulant on phagocytosis of erythrocytes by the retiulohistiocytary system of isolated perfused rat liver" Arzneim Forsch 35:1437–9.
Wüstenberg P, Henneicke-von Zepelin HH, Köhler G, Stammwitz U (1999) "Efficacy and mode of action of an immunomodulator herbal preparation containing Echinacea, wild indigo, and white cedar" Adv Ther 16(1):51–70.