by Eric Yarnell, ND, RH(AHG)
Last updated 30 Jan 2022
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Table of Contents
Clinical Highlights
Usnea is a moderately strong antimicrobial.
Usnea is primarily used for respiratory infections.
Used in reasonable doses, usnea has no significantly adverse effects. Isolated usnic acid in high doses is hepatotoxic.
Usnea is primarily used for respiratory infections.
Used in reasonable doses, usnea has no significantly adverse effects. Isolated usnic acid in high doses is hepatotoxic.
Usnea spp thallus (photo copyright E. Yarnell)
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Usnea quasirigida thallus (photo copyright E. Yarnell)
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Clinical Fundamentals
Part Used: the fresh or dried thallus is used. It should retain its grayish-green coloration if dried.
Taste: bitter
Major Actions:
In vitro, usnic acid has been shown to damage the cell membrane of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by an as-yet unidentified molecular mechanism (Gupta, et al. 2012). In vitro antimicrobial activity for pure usnic acid was strong at very low concentrations against several organisms (Ranković, et al. 2012).
Major Organ System Affinities
Major Indications:
Major Constituents: See Laxinamujila, et al. 2013 for a general review.
Adverse Effects: No adverse effects typically occur at therapeutic doses of crude extracts of the whole lichen. Use of isolated usnic acid is associated with hepatoxicity due to reactive metabolites formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes in the liver (Pramyothin, et al. 2004). There are case reports of a weight-loss formula containing fairly large amounts of usnic acid causing hepatotoxicity (Estes, et al. 2003; Favreau, et al. 2002). Crude old man's beard has never been reported to be hepatotoxic. Pure usnic acid, at doses of 100 mg/kg (20 times the effective dose) were safe in mice infected with MRSA, though at 25 mg/kg it caused hyperglyceridemia, elevated serum alkaline phosphatase, and affected liver weight (Gupta, et al. 2012).
Nausea or vomiting may occur with crude extracts at very high doses, though even this is poorly documented.
Contraindications: None known, except that isolated usnic acid should not be used. Use in patients with active autoimmune disease or taking immunosuppressive drugs because of this, or because of organ transplantation, is of unknown safety. The posited immunostimulant effects of this herb have not been documented and are only theoretical at this point.
Drug Interactions: It would be imprudent to combine large doses with hepatotoxic drugs, though this is highly speculative.
Taste: bitter
Major Actions:
- Antimicrobial (Maulidiyah, et al. 2020; Gupta, et al. 2012; Ranković, et al. 2012; Sultana and Afolayan 2011; Weckesser, et al. 2007; Rowe, et al. 1999; Lauterwein, et al. 1995)
- Antifungal (Weckesser, et al. 2007; Afolayan, et al. 2002)
- Immunostimulant (posited from clinical effects, not documented scientifically)
- Demulcent (polysaccharide-containing extracts only)
In vitro, usnic acid has been shown to damage the cell membrane of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by an as-yet unidentified molecular mechanism (Gupta, et al. 2012). In vitro antimicrobial activity for pure usnic acid was strong at very low concentrations against several organisms (Ranković, et al. 2012).
Major Organ System Affinities
- Respiratory Tract
Major Indications:
- Upper and lower respiratory infections
- Gastrointestinal infections
- Genitourinary infections
Major Constituents: See Laxinamujila, et al. 2013 for a general review.
- Lichen acids, such as usnic acid (Ingolfsdottir 2002; Cocchietto, et al. 2002): water insoluble, most soluble in hot ethanol
- Polysaccharides
Adverse Effects: No adverse effects typically occur at therapeutic doses of crude extracts of the whole lichen. Use of isolated usnic acid is associated with hepatoxicity due to reactive metabolites formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes in the liver (Pramyothin, et al. 2004). There are case reports of a weight-loss formula containing fairly large amounts of usnic acid causing hepatotoxicity (Estes, et al. 2003; Favreau, et al. 2002). Crude old man's beard has never been reported to be hepatotoxic. Pure usnic acid, at doses of 100 mg/kg (20 times the effective dose) were safe in mice infected with MRSA, though at 25 mg/kg it caused hyperglyceridemia, elevated serum alkaline phosphatase, and affected liver weight (Gupta, et al. 2012).
Nausea or vomiting may occur with crude extracts at very high doses, though even this is poorly documented.
Contraindications: None known, except that isolated usnic acid should not be used. Use in patients with active autoimmune disease or taking immunosuppressive drugs because of this, or because of organ transplantation, is of unknown safety. The posited immunostimulant effects of this herb have not been documented and are only theoretical at this point.
Drug Interactions: It would be imprudent to combine large doses with hepatotoxic drugs, though this is highly speculative.
Pharmacy Essentials
Tincture: 1:2–1:3 w:v ratio, 30% ethanol
Dose:
Acute, adult:
Chronic, adult:
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Glycerite:
Decoction: 2–3 g (1 heaping tsp) of root simmered, covered, in 250 ml of water for 15–30 min, the result of which makes one cup (not 8 oz, but one dose). The amount of water used can be adjusted to patient taste in subsequent cups.
Dose:
Acute adult:
Chronic, adult: 1 cup tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Capsules: these are not widely available..
Dose:
Acute, adult: 1–2 g per dose, otherwise dosed as with acute tincture
Chronic, adult: 1–2 g tid (not usually taken chronically)
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
If you need help formulating with this herb, or any other, you can use the formulation tool. Remember that when using this herb in a formula, due to synergy, you can usually use less.
Dose:
Acute, adult:
Chronic, adult:
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Glycerite:
Decoction: 2–3 g (1 heaping tsp) of root simmered, covered, in 250 ml of water for 15–30 min, the result of which makes one cup (not 8 oz, but one dose). The amount of water used can be adjusted to patient taste in subsequent cups.
Dose:
Acute adult:
Chronic, adult: 1 cup tid
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
Capsules: these are not widely available..
Dose:
Acute, adult: 1–2 g per dose, otherwise dosed as with acute tincture
Chronic, adult: 1–2 g tid (not usually taken chronically)
Child: as adult but adjusted for body size
If you need help formulating with this herb, or any other, you can use the formulation tool. Remember that when using this herb in a formula, due to synergy, you can usually use less.
Other Names
Latin synonyms:
Current correct Latin binomial: Usnea longissima Ach
Dolichousnea longissima (Ach) Articus
Usnea <Arabic word for moss.
English Common Names: old man's beard, usnea, beard lichen, hair lichen, Methuselah's beard lichen
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Dakeł ᑕᗸᒡ (Southern Carrier, Athabascan): dahgha ("limb hair”, Ulkatcho dialect)
Łingít (Tlingit, Na-Dené): tł’éx̱ (“brown fungus”), possibly s’éix̌ʷani (“pale green lichen”)
diitiid7aa7tx (Ditidaht, Wakashan): p’uʔup (lichens and mosses in general)
Kwak̓wala (Kwakiutl, Wakashan): pəlp̓aləmdzəx̱tłuw’ (lichens in general)
qʷi·qʷi·diččaq (Makah, Wakashan): łuchiba (QD13)
T̓aat̓aaqsapa, nuučaan̓uɫ (Nootka, Wakashan): p’uʔup (lichens in general)
X̄a’islak̓ala, X̌àh̓isl̩ak̓ala (Haisla, Wakashan): ts’ats’qx̱ławai (“goat’s wool in tree”)
Halq̓eméylem (Halkomelem, Salish): q’ə́ts’əyʔ (Quw'utsun dialect)
Q̉ʷay̓áyiłq̉ (Upper Chehalis, Salish): pə́xʷłqʷəym (“old man’s beard lichen,” may be name for Alectoria sarmentosa only)
SENĆOŦEN (Saanich, North Straits dialect, Salish): q’ə́č’əyʔ
Sm’álgyax (Tsimshian family and language): iimgan, iimgmgan (“witch’s hair”)
Dakhótiyapi (Dakota, Siouan): chan wiziye ("on the north side of the tree")
X̱aat Kíl (Haida, isolate): k’aalts’adaa liijaa (“crow’s mountain goat wool”), k’al.jîda (Massett dialect); k’aalts’idaa liisga (“crow’s mountain goat wool”), k’aalts’idaa gyaa’adga, k’aalts’idaa gyaaʔadga (“crow’s blanket,” Skidegate dialect)
German Common Names: Bartflechten (in general), Langbartflechte (U. longissima), Bartflechte (U. hirta)
Danish Common Names: baardmos (in general), liden skæglav (U. hirta)
Norwegian Common Names: strylav (in general), huldrestry (U. longissima), grovstry(U. barbata), glattstry (U. hirta)
Swedish Common Names: skägglav (in general), luddig skägglav (U. hirta)
Finnish Common Names: naavat (in general), rihmanaava (U. longissima), tupsunaava (U. hirta)
Hungarian Common Names: usnea
French Common Names: usnée, usnée barbue (general), usnée hérissée (U. hirta)
Italian Common Names: usnea (U. hirta)
Spanish Common Names: usnea (general), barba de capuchino, barba de fraile (U. barbata)
Polish Common Names: brodaczka (general), brodaczka najdłuższa (U. longissima), brodaczka kępkowa (U. hirta)
Serbian Common Names: Шумска брада ( Šumska brada)
Russian Common Names: Уснея
Czech Common Names: provazovka (general), provazovka nejdelší (U. longissima), provazovka tlustovousá (U. barbata), provazovka srstnatá (U. hirta)
Turkish Common Names: sakal likeni, sakal yogsunu (U. barbata)
Chinese (Mandarin) Common Names: 鬍鬚地衣
Japanese Common Names: サルオガセ (general), ながさるおがせ (U. longissima)
Esperanto Common Names: usneo (U. barbata), hirta usneo (U. hirta)
Current correct Latin binomial: Usnea longissima Ach
Dolichousnea longissima (Ach) Articus
Usnea <Arabic word for moss.
English Common Names: old man's beard, usnea, beard lichen, hair lichen, Methuselah's beard lichen
Native American Common Names (grouped linguistically and geographically):
Dakeł ᑕᗸᒡ (Southern Carrier, Athabascan): dahgha ("limb hair”, Ulkatcho dialect)
Łingít (Tlingit, Na-Dené): tł’éx̱ (“brown fungus”), possibly s’éix̌ʷani (“pale green lichen”)
diitiid7aa7tx (Ditidaht, Wakashan): p’uʔup (lichens and mosses in general)
Kwak̓wala (Kwakiutl, Wakashan): pəlp̓aləmdzəx̱tłuw’ (lichens in general)
qʷi·qʷi·diččaq (Makah, Wakashan): łuchiba (QD13)
T̓aat̓aaqsapa, nuučaan̓uɫ (Nootka, Wakashan): p’uʔup (lichens in general)
X̄a’islak̓ala, X̌àh̓isl̩ak̓ala (Haisla, Wakashan): ts’ats’qx̱ławai (“goat’s wool in tree”)
Halq̓eméylem (Halkomelem, Salish): q’ə́ts’əyʔ (Quw'utsun dialect)
Q̉ʷay̓áyiłq̉ (Upper Chehalis, Salish): pə́xʷłqʷəym (“old man’s beard lichen,” may be name for Alectoria sarmentosa only)
SENĆOŦEN (Saanich, North Straits dialect, Salish): q’ə́č’əyʔ
Sm’álgyax (Tsimshian family and language): iimgan, iimgmgan (“witch’s hair”)
Dakhótiyapi (Dakota, Siouan): chan wiziye ("on the north side of the tree")
X̱aat Kíl (Haida, isolate): k’aalts’adaa liijaa (“crow’s mountain goat wool”), k’al.jîda (Massett dialect); k’aalts’idaa liisga (“crow’s mountain goat wool”), k’aalts’idaa gyaa’adga, k’aalts’idaa gyaaʔadga (“crow’s blanket,” Skidegate dialect)
German Common Names: Bartflechten (in general), Langbartflechte (U. longissima), Bartflechte (U. hirta)
Danish Common Names: baardmos (in general), liden skæglav (U. hirta)
Norwegian Common Names: strylav (in general), huldrestry (U. longissima), grovstry(U. barbata), glattstry (U. hirta)
Swedish Common Names: skägglav (in general), luddig skägglav (U. hirta)
Finnish Common Names: naavat (in general), rihmanaava (U. longissima), tupsunaava (U. hirta)
Hungarian Common Names: usnea
French Common Names: usnée, usnée barbue (general), usnée hérissée (U. hirta)
Italian Common Names: usnea (U. hirta)
Spanish Common Names: usnea (general), barba de capuchino, barba de fraile (U. barbata)
Polish Common Names: brodaczka (general), brodaczka najdłuższa (U. longissima), brodaczka kępkowa (U. hirta)
Serbian Common Names: Шумска брада ( Šumska brada)
Russian Common Names: Уснея
Czech Common Names: provazovka (general), provazovka nejdelší (U. longissima), provazovka tlustovousá (U. barbata), provazovka srstnatá (U. hirta)
Turkish Common Names: sakal likeni, sakal yogsunu (U. barbata)
Chinese (Mandarin) Common Names: 鬍鬚地衣
Japanese Common Names: サルオガセ (general), ながさるおがせ (U. longissima)
Esperanto Common Names: usneo (U. barbata), hirta usneo (U. hirta)
Interchangeability of Species
There is sufficient historical information to consider these species of Usnea likely to be interchangeable as medicine: U. cornuata (inflated beard lichen), U. florida (eyed beard lichen), U. hirta (and U. barbata which is by many sources considered a synonym for U. hirta, shaggy or bristly beard lichen), U. longissima, and U. wirthii (blood-spattered beard).
Advanced Clinical Information
Additional Actions:
Additional Indications:
Dioscorides does not clearly and explicitly deal with usnea, though some argue that his section 1-20 is about either Usnea florida or Alectoria arabium (which smells sweet). Others believe he was talking about Humulus lupulus (hops), though this seems unlikely as he would surely have mentioned the pronounced bitter taste of this herb. It is also possible he is described some type of mistletoe. Here is one translation of this passage: "1-20. BRUON: Bryum is sometimes called sphlanchnon. It is found on trees such as cedars, white poplars or oaks: the best grows on cedar, next is that which grows on white poplar. That which smells sweetest and is white is the best, but that which is black is the worst. Bryum is astringent. Used either hot or cold it is good in decoctions made for all those disorders requiring bathing around the vulva. It is mixed with ointments made for suppositories, with other ointments for the astringent quality in it, for the preparation of perfumes, and is put into medicines called acopi [to remove fatigue]" (Dioscorides 2000).
Usnea spp have been reported for a wide range of uses by native people in North America and elsewhere, though some of these reports may be flawed by misunderstanding of language or culture, or other problems. The Pomo (who are a diverse group of bands from what is now northern California with closely related languages) reported used U. californica as absorbent padding in diapers (Gifford 1967). U. lacunosa was similarly used as bedding by people living in what is now Mendocino County (Chestnut 1902). The X̱aayd (Haida) reportedly used U. longissima to strain hot resins to remove various impurities before taking it as medicine (Turmer 1979). The Nihithawak (Cree) apparently used fresh usnea in the nostrils to stop nose bleeds and as a wound dressing to absorb blood (Leighton 1985). The diitiid7aa7tx (Nitinaht or Ditidaht) reportedly used U. longissima as a wound dressing to absorb blood, to absorb menstrual blood, as a diaper stuffing, and for cleaning fish (Turner, et al. 1983). The Nuxalk (Bella Coola) used usnea to make false whiskers on dance masks (Turner 1973). The Maori are also reported to have used U. barbata as a bandage to stop bleeding (Booker, et al. 1987). In the Simla Hills of India, U. longissima was reportedly used to stuff cushions (Chopra, et al. 1958). Jewish historical documents from the time they lived in Old Cairo (1,000 years ago) indicate the usnea was used to treat colds, cough, heart diseases, to improve eye sight, and as an anesthetic (Lev 2007; Lev and Amar 2006).
- Antineoplastic (Yamamoto, et al. 1995; Nishikawa, et al. 1974)
- Anti-melanoma (Brandão, et al. 2013)
- Anti-leishmania (da Luz, et al. 2015)
- Antiulcer (Halici, et al. 2005)
- Inflammation modulator (Engel, et al. 2007)
- Anti-genotoxic (Ceker, et al. 2015)
- Anti-aflatoxin (Ceker, et al. 2015)
- Antiherpetic (Vijayan, et al. 2004)
Additional Indications:
- Cancer
- Immunosuppression, unintentional
Dioscorides does not clearly and explicitly deal with usnea, though some argue that his section 1-20 is about either Usnea florida or Alectoria arabium (which smells sweet). Others believe he was talking about Humulus lupulus (hops), though this seems unlikely as he would surely have mentioned the pronounced bitter taste of this herb. It is also possible he is described some type of mistletoe. Here is one translation of this passage: "1-20. BRUON: Bryum is sometimes called sphlanchnon. It is found on trees such as cedars, white poplars or oaks: the best grows on cedar, next is that which grows on white poplar. That which smells sweetest and is white is the best, but that which is black is the worst. Bryum is astringent. Used either hot or cold it is good in decoctions made for all those disorders requiring bathing around the vulva. It is mixed with ointments made for suppositories, with other ointments for the astringent quality in it, for the preparation of perfumes, and is put into medicines called acopi [to remove fatigue]" (Dioscorides 2000).
Usnea spp have been reported for a wide range of uses by native people in North America and elsewhere, though some of these reports may be flawed by misunderstanding of language or culture, or other problems. The Pomo (who are a diverse group of bands from what is now northern California with closely related languages) reported used U. californica as absorbent padding in diapers (Gifford 1967). U. lacunosa was similarly used as bedding by people living in what is now Mendocino County (Chestnut 1902). The X̱aayd (Haida) reportedly used U. longissima to strain hot resins to remove various impurities before taking it as medicine (Turmer 1979). The Nihithawak (Cree) apparently used fresh usnea in the nostrils to stop nose bleeds and as a wound dressing to absorb blood (Leighton 1985). The diitiid7aa7tx (Nitinaht or Ditidaht) reportedly used U. longissima as a wound dressing to absorb blood, to absorb menstrual blood, as a diaper stuffing, and for cleaning fish (Turner, et al. 1983). The Nuxalk (Bella Coola) used usnea to make false whiskers on dance masks (Turner 1973). The Maori are also reported to have used U. barbata as a bandage to stop bleeding (Booker, et al. 1987). In the Simla Hills of India, U. longissima was reportedly used to stuff cushions (Chopra, et al. 1958). Jewish historical documents from the time they lived in Old Cairo (1,000 years ago) indicate the usnea was used to treat colds, cough, heart diseases, to improve eye sight, and as an anesthetic (Lev 2007; Lev and Amar 2006).
Botanical Information
Botanical Description: Usneas are lichens, a symbiotic association between an algae and a fungus (lichenized Ascomycetes). The algae provides carbohydrates via photosynthesis while the fungus provides protection. Epiphytic species have thalli that are long, gray-green, and finely branched (considered fruticose or hair-like). Usnea has some of the narrowest diameter fronds of any related lichens. They have an inner cord that is white or yellow-white which can be observed by pulling away or peeling off the outer layers (from fresh or rehydrated material, once dry this becomes nearly impossible to observe), unlike any other lichen in the Pacific Northwest at least. There is extreme variability with this and all usnea species, including within one region (leading to the term ecophenotypes). Reproduction is by fungal spores (sexual) which does not involve the algae, or asexually which involves both partners. Small organs variously termed isidia or soredia often break off, containing both fungus and algae, for spread of the joint organism. Production of apothecia has not been observed, at least in North America.
Various reports suggest this lichen can reach up to 10 m in length. Generally the long thallus has a moderately thick central branch and many perpendicular short, roughly equal length side branches, giving a bottle-brush appearance.
Genetic testing has shown that there are at least four broad subgenera in the Usnea genus: Eumitria, Dolichousnea, Neuropogon, and Usnea (Truong, et al. 2013). Additionally this research showed that phylogeny was a good basis for determining species, matching closely with genetic research which confirmed most species as presently defined. This line of research is followed in this monograph, and Usnea is thus not reassigned to the genus Dolichousnea.
Look-alike species include Alectoria spp (witch's hair), which are fruticose lichens and lack central cords (but are also medicinal and edible) and Evernia spp (oak "moss"), which are foliose lichens that lack central cords.
Native range: This lichen is generally found in old-growth forests in a circumboreal distribution. In North America, it is most common across the boreal forests of Canada, in WA, OR, CA, NV, ID, MT, and across the upper Midwest into New England. Habitat loss from rampant removal of old-growth forests in all these areas has greatly and negatively impacted old man's beard.
Various reports suggest this lichen can reach up to 10 m in length. Generally the long thallus has a moderately thick central branch and many perpendicular short, roughly equal length side branches, giving a bottle-brush appearance.
Genetic testing has shown that there are at least four broad subgenera in the Usnea genus: Eumitria, Dolichousnea, Neuropogon, and Usnea (Truong, et al. 2013). Additionally this research showed that phylogeny was a good basis for determining species, matching closely with genetic research which confirmed most species as presently defined. This line of research is followed in this monograph, and Usnea is thus not reassigned to the genus Dolichousnea.
Look-alike species include Alectoria spp (witch's hair), which are fruticose lichens and lack central cords (but are also medicinal and edible) and Evernia spp (oak "moss"), which are foliose lichens that lack central cords.
Native range: This lichen is generally found in old-growth forests in a circumboreal distribution. In North America, it is most common across the boreal forests of Canada, in WA, OR, CA, NV, ID, MT, and across the upper Midwest into New England. Habitat loss from rampant removal of old-growth forests in all these areas has greatly and negatively impacted old man's beard.
Principal distribution of Usnea longissima in North America.
Harvest, Cultivation, and Ecology
Cultivation: This is not known to be practiced.
Wildcrafting: All materials are wild harvested at this point. Generally only specimens that have fallen to the ground naturally should be harvested, especially after storms. Areas of forest with only limited amounts of usnea should not be harvested, and material that has fallen to the ground should be restored to the trees. Areas with small populations reflect that they are second-growth, unhealthy forests, or may have been exposed to high levels of air pollution. This could make for toxic levels of heavy metals or other compounds in any surviving usnea. However, one analysis near a steel mill in Turkey found that U. hirta had low tendency to accumulate heavy metals (Cansaran-Duman 2011).
Ecological Status: Usneas are highly sensitive to air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide (Nash and Gries 1991; Nash and Wirth 1988). They have been used to monitor air quality. As air pollution is reduced, usnea can re-enter areas from which they were previously extirpated (Showman 1997). Habitat has also been reduced by clear cutting old-growth forests. Particularly hard hit have been the northern and eastern European populations of usnea. Pacific Northwest usneas are considered relatively well off, though outside of national parks and protected areas they have been much reduced.
Wildcrafting: All materials are wild harvested at this point. Generally only specimens that have fallen to the ground naturally should be harvested, especially after storms. Areas of forest with only limited amounts of usnea should not be harvested, and material that has fallen to the ground should be restored to the trees. Areas with small populations reflect that they are second-growth, unhealthy forests, or may have been exposed to high levels of air pollution. This could make for toxic levels of heavy metals or other compounds in any surviving usnea. However, one analysis near a steel mill in Turkey found that U. hirta had low tendency to accumulate heavy metals (Cansaran-Duman 2011).
Ecological Status: Usneas are highly sensitive to air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide (Nash and Gries 1991; Nash and Wirth 1988). They have been used to monitor air quality. As air pollution is reduced, usnea can re-enter areas from which they were previously extirpated (Showman 1997). Habitat has also been reduced by clear cutting old-growth forests. Particularly hard hit have been the northern and eastern European populations of usnea. Pacific Northwest usneas are considered relatively well off, though outside of national parks and protected areas they have been much reduced.
References
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Brandão LF, Alcantara GB, Matos Mde F, et al. (2013) "Cytotoxic evaluation of phenolic compounds from lichens against melanoma cells" Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 61(2):176–83.
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Leighton AL (1985) "Wild plant use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Centra Saskatchewan" Nat Mus of Man Mercury Series Can Ethnol Serv 101:20.
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Lev E, Amar Z (2006) "Reconstruction of the inventory of materia medica used by members of the Jewish community of medieval Cairo according to prescription found in the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge" J Ethnopharmacol 108:428–44.
Maulidiyah, Sabarwati SH, Harjuliarto R, et al. (2020) "Antibacterial activity of usnic acid from Usnea longissima Ach" Pak J Pharm Sci 33(4):1631–9.
Matvieieva NA, Pasichnyk LA, Zhytkevych NV, et al. (2015) "Antimicrobial activity of extracts from Ecuadorian lichens" Mikrobiol Z 77(3):23–7.
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Ranković B, Kosanić M, Stanojković T, et al. (2012) "Biological activities of Toninia candida and Usnea barbata together with their norstictic acid and usnic acid constituents" Int J Mol Sci 13(11):14707–22.
Rowe GJ, Gimenez GMD, Rodriguez SMT (1999) "Some lichen products have antimicrobial activity" Z Naturforsch 54:605–9.
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Laxinamujila, Bao HY, Bau T (2013) "Advance in studies on chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of lichens in Usnea genus" Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 38(4):539–45 [in Chinese].
Leighton AL (1985) "Wild plant use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Centra Saskatchewan" Nat Mus of Man Mercury Series Can Ethnol Serv 101:20.
Lev E (2007) "Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval (11–14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materia medica found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge" J Ethnopharmacol 110:275–93.
Lev E, Amar Z (2006) "Reconstruction of the inventory of materia medica used by members of the Jewish community of medieval Cairo according to prescription found in the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge" J Ethnopharmacol 108:428–44.
Maulidiyah, Sabarwati SH, Harjuliarto R, et al. (2020) "Antibacterial activity of usnic acid from Usnea longissima Ach" Pak J Pharm Sci 33(4):1631–9.
Matvieieva NA, Pasichnyk LA, Zhytkevych NV, et al. (2015) "Antimicrobial activity of extracts from Ecuadorian lichens" Mikrobiol Z 77(3):23–7.
Nash TH III, Gries C (1991) "Lichens as indicators of air pollution" In: Hutzinger O (ed) The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry vol 4, pat C (Heidelberg: Springer):1–29.
Nash TH III, Wirth V (eds) (1988) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality (Berlin and Stuttgart: J Cramer).
Nishikawa Y, Oki K, Takahashi K, et al. (1974) "Studies on the water soluble constituents of lichens. II. Antitumor polysaccharides of Lasallia, Usnea and Cladonia species" Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 22(11):2692–702.
Pramyothin P, Janthasoot W, Pongimiprasert N, et al. (2004) "Hepatotoxic effect of (+)-usnic acid from Usnea siamensis Wainio in rats, isolated rat hepatocytes and isolated rat liver mitochondria" J Ethnopharmacol 90(2–3):381–7.
Ranković B, Kosanić M, Stanojković T, et al. (2012) "Biological activities of Toninia candida and Usnea barbata together with their norstictic acid and usnic acid constituents" Int J Mol Sci 13(11):14707–22.
Rowe GJ, Gimenez GMD, Rodriguez SMT (1999) "Some lichen products have antimicrobial activity" Z Naturforsch 54:605–9.
Showman RE (1997) "Continuing lichen recolonization in the upper Ohio river valley" Bryologist 100:478–81.
Stuhr ET (1933) Manual of Pacific Coast Drug Plants (Lancaster: Science Press Printing Company).
Sultana N, Afolayan AJ (2011) "A new depsidone and antibacterial activities of compounds from Usnea undulata Stirton" J Asian Nat Prod Res 13(12):1158–64.
Truong C, Divakar PK, Yahr R, et al. (2013) "Testing the use of ITS rDNA and protein-coding genes in the generic and species delimitation of the lichen genus Usnea (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota)" Mol Phylogenet Evol 68(2):357–72.
Turner NJ (1973) "The ethnobotany of the Bella Coola Indians of British Columbia" Syesis 6:193–220.
Turner NJ (1979) Plants in British Columbia Indian Technology (Handbook No. 38, British Columbia Provincial Museum).
Turner NJ, Thomas J, Carlson RT (1983) "Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver Island" British Columbia Prov Mus Occas Pap No 24 165:55.
Vijayan P1, Raghu C, Ashok G, et al. (2004) "Antiviral activity of medicinal plants of Nilgiris" Indian J Med Res 120(1):24–29.
Weckesser S, Engel K, Simon-Haarhaus B, et al. (2007) "Screening of plant extracts for antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts with dermatological relevance" Phytomedicine 14:508–516.
Yamamoto Y, Miura Y, Kinoshita Y, et al. (1995) "Screening of tissue cultures and thalli of lichens and some of their active constituents for inhibition of tumor promoter-induced Epstein-Barr virus activation" Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 43(8):1388–90.